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Tuanku Imam Bonjol (born in Bonjol, Pasaman, West Sumatra, Indonesia in 1772 - died in exile and was buried in Lotak, Pineleng, Minahasa, November 6, 1864), was one of the scholars, leaders and warriors who fought against the Dutch in the wars known as the name of the Padri War in 1803-1837. Tuanku Imam Bonjol appointed as National Hero of Indonesia under Presidential Decree No. 1973 087/TK/Tahun, November 6, 1973 [1].Name and title
The original name of Tuanku Imam Bonjol is Muhammad Shahab, who was born in Bonjol in 1772. As scholars and local community leaders, he obtained several degrees, ie Peto Sharif, Malin Basa, and Tuanku Imam. Lord nan Renceh from kamang as one of the leaders of the Tiger nan Salapan is appointed as the Imam (leader) for the Padri in Bonjol. He finally better known as the Tuanku Imam Bonjol.History of struggleThe main article for this section are: Padri War
It can not be denied, leaving the Padri War traumatic memories in the memory at once heroic nation. For about 18 years old the first war (1803-1821) who fought a practical fellow Minangkabau and Batak Mandailing or general.
At first occurrence of this war based on a desire among leaders of Muslim preachers in the Kingdom Pagaruyung to implement and run according to Islamic Wahhabi school of the time it developed in Arabia (Saudi Arabia today). Then the leader of the clergy who joined the Tigers nan Lintau Salapan requested to invite the King Tuanku Sultan Muning Pagaruyung Alamsyah and Indigenous People to leave some habits that are not compatible with Islam.
In some negotiations no agreement between The Padri (naming for the clergy) with Indigenous People. With that in several villages in the Kingdom Pagaruyung turbulent, and finally The Padri leader Tuanku Pasaman under attack Pagaruyung in 1815, and fighting broke out in nearby Stone Cage SMART INVESTOR. Sultan Muning Alamsyah forced to flee from the capital of the kingdom.
On February 21, 1821, the Indigenous formally cooperate with the Dutch East Indies government's war against the Padri in the agreement signed at the Padang, the Netherlands received as compensation for access rights and control over territory darek (inland Minangkabau) [2]. Agreement was also attended by the rest of the family dynasty of the kingdom under the leadership of Sultan Pagaruyung Nature talisman Bagagar who has been in the Valley at that time.
Dutch intervention in the war marked by attack Simawang and Hard Water by army Captain Captain Dienema Goffinet and early April 1821 on the orders of the Resident James du Puy in Padang. In this case the Company engaged in the war because it "invited" by the indigenous.
Resistance carried out by forces strong enough so that the priest is very difficult for them subject Netherlands. Therefore the Netherlands through the Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch took the time Padri The leaders had been led by the Tuanku Imam Bonjol to make peace with the edict "install a Treaty" in 1824. This is understandable because while simultaneously Batavia also run out of funds in the face of another war in Europe, and Java such as Java War. But then this agreement is violated by the Dutch themselves by attacking Nagari Sikek Clever.
However, since the beginning of 1833 the war turned into a war between the Indigenous and the Padri against the Dutch, the two sides shoulder to shoulder against the Dutch, the original parties to the conflict finally unite against the Dutch. Tip of remorse appears consciousness, inviting the Dutch in the conflict instead miserable Minangkabau society itself [3]. Merging of the indigenous and the Padri was started with compromise known as Puncak Pato plaque on which embodies the consensus Tabek Broken Indigenous basandi Syarak, Syarak basandi Kitabullah (based Indigenous Religion, Religious based Kitabullah (Al-Qur'an)).
Tuanku Imam Bonjol remorse for the actions of the Padri on fellow Minang, Batak Mandailing and, reflected in his words "legal Adopun Kitabullah many malampau deck was caused Kito juo. Baä your deck?" (As many of the laws that already terlangkahi Kitabullah by us. How do you mind?) [3]
Assault and siege of the fortress of the Padri in Bonjol by the Dutch from all directions for about six months (March 16-August 17, 1837) [4], led by the generals and the officers of the Netherlands, but the army is largely composed of indigenous peoples from various tribes, such as Java, Madura, Bugis, and Ambon. In the list of names of the Dutch army officer, Maj. Gen. Cochius there, Lt. Col. Bauer, sous Major, Captain Maclean, Lieutenant Van der Tak, Assistant First Lieutenant Steinmetz. and so on, but also terda [at Inlandsche names (native) as Captain Noto Prawiro Inlandsche Luitenant Prawiro in Logo, Karto Wongso Redjo Wiro, Prawiro Sentiko, Prawiro Brotto, and Merto Poero.
There are 148 European officers, 36 native officers, 1103 soldiers of Europe, 4130 native troops, Sumenapsche hulptroepen hieronder begrepen (auxiliary troops Sumenep, Madura). The attack on the fort began Bonjol Bugis people who are in the front of the defense attack Padri.
From Batavia brought Dutch continue army reinforcements, which on the date of July 20, 1837 The ship arrived with Perle in Padang, Captain Sinninghe, a number of European and African, one Sergeant, four korporaals and 112 flankeurs. The latter refers to the African soldiers recruited by the Netherlands in the continent, today the country of Ghana and Mali. They also called Sepoys and served in the Dutch army.Arrest and exile
After aid comes from Batavia, the Dutch began to resume the siege, and in subsequent periods, the position of Tuanku Imam Bonjol get more difficult, but she is still unwilling to surrender to the Dutch. So up to three times the Dutch to change his war commander to seize Bonjol, which is a small country with a fort from the surrounding clay surrounded by moats. Later on August 16, 1837, Fort Bonjol can be mastered after a long siege.
In the month of October 1837, Tuanku Imam Bonjol Palupuh to be invited to negotiate. Arriving at the place was immediately arrested and thrown into Cianjur, West Java. Then transferred to Ambon, and finally to Lotak, Minahasa, near Manado. In the last place that he died on November 8, 1864. Tuanku Imam Bonjol buried at the exile.Awards
The struggle that has been done by the Tuanku Imam Bonjol can be appreciation will heroism in opposing the occupation [5], as appreciation from the Indonesian government that represents the people of Indonesia in general, Tuanku Imam Bonjol appointed as National Hero of Indonesia since November 6, 1973.
Besides his name is also present in the public spaces of the nation as a street name, the name of the stadium, a university, even on a sheet of Bank Indonesia USD 5000 output 6 November 2001 [6].

The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise regarding the matter.^[52] Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they are suddenly asked to cover.^[53][54]

Politics

Many issues damage the relationship of science to the media and the use of science and scientific arguments by politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typically offer probabilities and caveats. However, politicians' ability to be heard in the mass media frequently distorts the scientific understanding by the public. Examples in Britain include the controversy over the MMR inoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of a Government Minister, Edwina Currie for revealing the high probability that battery eggs were contaminated with Salmonella.^[55]

Philosophical critiques

Historian Jacques Barzun termed science "a faith as fanatical as any in history" and warned against the use of scientific thought to suppress considerations of meaning as integral to human existence.^[43] Many recent thinkers, such as Carolyn Merchant, Theodor Adorno and E. F. Schumacher considered that the 17th century scientific revolution shifted science from a focus on understanding nature, or wisdom, to a focus on manipulating nature, i.e. power, and that science's emphasis on manipulating nature leads it inevitably to manipulate people, as well.^[44] Science's focus on quantitative measures has led to critiques that it is unable to recognize important qualitative aspects of the world.^[44]
Philosopher of science Paul K Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological anarchism, which holds that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science or the growth of knowledge, and that the idea that science can or should operate according to universal and fixed rules is unrealistic, pernicious and detrimental to science itself.^[45] Feyerabend advocates treating science as an ideology alongside others such as religion, magic and mythology, and considers the dominance of science in society authoritarian and unjustified.^[45] He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that the demarcation problem of distinguishing science from pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and thus fatal to the notion of science running according to fixed, universal rules.^[45]
Feyerabend also criticized Science for not having evidence for its own philosophical precepts. Particularly the notion of Uniformity of Law and the Uniformity of Process across time and space. "We have to realize that a unified theory of the physical world simply does not exist" says Feyerabend, "We have theories that work in restricted regions, we have purely formal attempts to condense them into a single formula, we have lots of unfounded claims (such as the claim that all of chemistry can be reduced to physics), phenomena that do not fit into the accepted framework are suppressed; in physics, which many scientists regard as the one really basic science, we have now at least three different points of view...without a promise of conceptual (and not only formal) unification"^[46].
Professor Stanley Aronowitz scrutinizes science for operating with the presumption that the only acceptable criticisms of science are those conducted within the methodological framework that science has set up for itself. That science insists that only those who have been inducted into its community, through means of training and credentials, are qualified to make these criticisms.^[47] Aronowitz also alleges that while scientists consider it absurd that Fundamentalist Christianity uses biblical references to bolster their claim that the bible is true, scientists pull the same tactic by using the tools of science to settle disputes concerning its own validity.^[48]
Psychologist Carl Jung believed that though science attempted to understand all of nature, the experimental method imposed artificial and conditional questions that evoke equally artificial answers. Jung encouraged, instead of these 'artificial' methods, empirically testing the world in a holistic manner.^[49] David Parkin compared the epistemological stance of science to that of divination.^[50] He suggested that, to the degree that divination is an epistemologically specific means of gaining insight into a given question, science itself can be considered a form of divination that is framed from a Western view of the nature (and thus possible applications) of knowledge.
Several academics have offered critiques concerning ethics in science. In Science and Ethics, for example, the philosopher Bernard Rollin examines the relevance of ethics to science, and argues in favor of making education in ethics part and parcel of scientific training.^[51]

An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or "alternative science". Another term, junk science, is often used to describe scientific hypotheses or conclusions which, while perhaps legitimate in themselves, are believed to be used to support a position that is seen as not legitimately justified by the totality of evidence. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" in reference to pursuits that have the formal trappings of science but lack "a principle of scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.
There also can be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of such debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad science", research that is well-intentioned but is seen as incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "scientific misconduct" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.

The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of scientific method that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are, which is known as the problem of demarcation. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the scientific community at large. For example, it is universally agreed that scientific hypotheses and theories must be capable of being independently tested and verified by other scientists in order to become accepted by the scientific community.
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. Methodological naturalism maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable phenomena.^[39] Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased observational studies. Critical rationalism instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes falsifiability as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the ability of science to increase the scope of testable knowledge, but at the same time against its authority, by emphasizing its inherent fallibility. It proposes that science should be content with the rational elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their verification (such as claiming certain or probable proof or disproof; both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical rationalism).^[40] Instrumentalism rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.^[41]
Biologist Stephen J. Gould maintained that certain philosophical propositions—i.e., 1) uniformity of law and 2) uniformity of processes across time and space—must first be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. Gould summarized this view as follows: "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws nor the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the out crop of rock."^[42]

The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists, its relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into "sub-communities" each working on a particular field within science.

Fields

Fields of science are widely recognized categories of specialized expertise, and typically embody their own terminology and nomenclature. Each field will commonly be represented by one or more scientific journal, where peer reviewed research will be published.

Institutions

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period.^[31] The oldest surviving institution is the Accademia dei Lincei in Italy.^[32] National Academy of Sciences are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660^[33] and the French Académie des Sciences in 1666.^[34]
International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the National Science Foundation in the U.S.
Other prominent organizations include the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, the academies of science of many nations, CSIRO in Australia, Centre national de la recherche scientifique in France, Max Planck Society and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in Germany, and in Spain, CSIC.

Literature

An enormous range of scientific literature is published.^[35] Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des Sçavans followed by the Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. As of 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.^[36] Today Pubmed lists almost 40,000, related to the medical sciences only.^[37]
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.
Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Science books engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the science fiction genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.
Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as Literature or, more specifically, Poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.^[38]

Mathematics is essential to the sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calculus, for example, are all essential to physics. Virtually every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as number theory and topology.
Statistical methods, which are mathematical techniques for summarizing and analyzing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results. Statistical analysis plays a fundamental role in many areas of both the natural sciences and social sciences.
Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.^[29]
Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logical derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather than the combination of empirical observation and logical reasoning that has come to be known as scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.^[30]

Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science works under a fallibilistic view. Instead, science is proud to make predictions with great probability, bearing in mind that the most likely event is not always what actually happens. During the Yom Kippur War, cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahneman was asked to explain why one squad of aircraft had returned safely, yet a second squad on the exact same operation had lost all of its planes. Rather than conduct a study in the hope of a new hypothesis, Kahneman simply reiterated the importance of expecting some coincidences in life, explaining that absurdly rare things, by definition, occasionally happen.^[23]
Theories very rarely result in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith Stanovich, it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false.^[24] While there are such famous cases as the theory of relativity that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments, by various researchers, across different domains of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.^[25] Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community. For example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered factual.^[26]
Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific method will doubt themselves even once they possess the truth.^[27]
Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the single cause fallacy. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is the cause of...", but rather "What are the most significant causes of...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, cosmology).^[28] Of course, research often analyzes few factors at once, but this always to add to the long list of factors that are most important to consider.^[28] For example: knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behaviour, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.

Based on observations of a phenomenon,scientists may generate a model. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence is gathered, scientists can suggest a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon. Hypotheses may be formulated using principles such as parsimony (traditionally known as "Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience - fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena. This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish a causational relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). Operationalization also plays an important role in coordinating research in/across different fields.
Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.
While performing experiments, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.^[18][19] This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.^[20][21] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.^[22]

A scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, and to use these findings to make useful predictions. This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving whilst minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the confirmation bias).^[15]

Basic and applied research

Although some scientific research is applied research into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic research. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".^[16] For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our night vision is not troubled by red light would lead militaries to adopt red light in the cockpits of all jet fighters.^[17]

Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is, in its broadest sense, any systematic knowledge that is capable of resulting in a correct prediction or reliable outcome. In this sense, science may refer to a highly skilled technique, technology, or practice.^[1][2]
In today's more restricted sense, science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, and to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research.^[3][4] It is a "systematic enterprise of gathering knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing that knowledge into testable laws and theories".^[5] This article focuses upon science in this more restricted sense, sometimes called experimental science, and also gives some broader historical context leading up to the modern understanding of the word "science."
From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, "science" had more-or-less the same sort of very broad meaning in English that "philosophy" had at that time. By the early 19th century, "natural philosophy" (which eventually evolved into what is today called "natural science") had begun to separate from "philosophy" in general. In many cases, "science" continued to stand for reliable knowledge about any topic, in the same way it is still used in the broad sense in modern terms such as library science, political science, and computer science. In the more narrow sense of "science" today, as natural philosophy became linked to an expanding set of well-defined laws (beginning with Galileo's laws, Kepler's laws, and Newton's laws for motion), it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" become increasingly associated mainly with the disciplined study of the natural world (that is, the non-human world). This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which has today been resolved by classifying these areas of study as the social sciences.

Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth, and is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System 5. Moon did not have their own light source and light Moon light actually comes from the reflection of the sun.
The average distance from the center of the Earth-Moon to the center is 384 403 km, about 30 times the diameter of Earth. The diameter of the Moon is 3474 km, [1] is slightly smaller than a quarter the diameter of Earth. This means that the volume of the Moon is only about 2 percent of the volume of the Earth and the pull of gravity at its surface about 17 percent than the gravitational pull of the Earth. Moon orbit around the Earth once every 27.3 days (orbital period), and periodic variations in the Earth-Moon system and the Sun is responsible for the occurrence of the phases of the moon are repeated every 29.5 days (period sinodik).
The density of the Moon (3.4 g / cm ³) is lighter than the density of the Earth (5.5 g / cm ³), while the mass of the Moon is only 0.012 Earth masses.
Month Earth is pulled by gravity does not fall into the Earth caused by the centrifugal force arising from the Moon's orbit around the earth. The amount of centrifugal force the Moon is slightly larger than the gravitational force attraction between the Earth and Moon. This causes the Moon receding from Earth at about 3.8 cm / year.
Moon is in synchronous orbit with Earth, this led to only one side surface of the Moon that could be observed from Earth. Synchronous orbit with the rotation causes kala kala revolution.
In the month there is no air or water. Many craters on the surface of the moon proceeds caused by the blow of a comet or asteroid. The absence of air and water on the moon causes the absence of erosion craters on the moon caused many millions of years old and still intact. Among the largest is the Clavius crater with a diameter of 230 kilometers and 3.6 kilometers deep. In the absence of air also causes no sound can be heard on the Moon.
Moon is the only thing that had ever gone sky and landed humans. The first artificial object passing near the Moon was the Soviet Union's space probe, Luna 1, the first artificial object which strikes the surface of the Moon was Luna 2, and the first photograph the far side of the moon is never visible from Earth, taken by Luna 3, all these missions conducted in 1959. The first successful spacecraft landing was Luna 9, and the successful orbiting the Moon was Luna 10, both conducted in 1966. [1] belonging to the United States Apollo Program is the only manned missions to date, which made six manned landings between 1969 and 1972.
Circumstances when the full moon is perfectly round moon appears from Earth. At that time, Earth is located near a line between the Sun and the Moon, so the entire surface of the Moon is illuminated by the Sun is visible from the Earth.
The opposite is when the moon is dead, that is when the Moon is located on nearly aligned between the Sun and Earth, so the 'look' of the Earth is a dark side behind the Moon, alias does not appear anything.
In between that time and there is a state half moon crescent, ie when the position of the Moon to the Earth forming a certain angle toward the line of Earth - the Sun. At that time, only partially exposed surface of the Moon that the Sun is visible from Earth.
Origin - the proposal is not known for certain months, but the scientists found evidence that the Moon came from a big collision with the small planet earth named theira approximately 3 billion years ago, and produces dust which amounted to very much and orbiting around the earth and eventually become dust accumulate months. At first distance of the moon at first only about 30,000 miles or 15 times closer than the distance of the Moon to the Earth now. Months away from research results about 3.8 cm per year.

The Earth is the third planet from the eight planets in the Solar System. Estimated to reach 4.6 billion years old. The distance between the Earth to the sun is 149.6 million kilometers, or 1 AU (UK: astronomical units). Earth has a layer of air (atmosphere) and the magnetic field is called (magnetosphere), which protect the Earth from the solar wind, ultraviolet rays, and radiation from outer space. This air layer surrounding the earth to a height of approximately 700 kilometers. Air layer is divided into Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Termosfer, and Eksosfer.
Ozone layer, as high as 50 kilometers, are in the stratosphere and the Mesosphere and protect the earth from ultraviolet rays. Earth's surface temperature difference is between -70 ° C to 55 ° C depending on the local climate. Divided into 24 hours a day and a year on earth equal to 365.2425 days. Earth has a mass weighing 59 760 billion tonnes, with a surface area of 510 million square kilometers. Earth's gravity (about 5500 kilograms per cubic meter) was used as the unit of weight ratio of other types of planets, with Earth's gravity was pegged as one.
Earth has a diameter of over 12 756 kilometers. Earth's gravity was measured as 10 N kg-1 used as units of measurement of gravity of another planet, with Earth's gravity was pegged as one. Earth has one natural satellite of the Moon. 70.8% surface of the earth covered with water. Earth's air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases.
Earth is estimated in the earth's core is made up of frozen-thick nickel-iron with a temperature of 1370 kilometers of 4500 ° C, covered well by the liquid outer core that is 2100 miles thick, and covered also by 2800 kilometers thick silica coat formed 83% of the earth, and finally once blanketed by thick crust of the earth approximately 85 kilometers.
The thinner the crust on the ocean floor that is about five kilometers. Earth's crust is divided to several sections and moving through the movement of tectonic plates (the theory of Continental Drift), which produce earthquakes.
The highest point on the earth surface is 8848 meters high Mount Everest, and the deepest point is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific ocean with a depth of 10 924 meters. Lake Baikal is the deepest lake with a depth of 1637 meters, while the largest lake is the Caspian Sea with an area of 394 299 km2.
Composition and structure
The Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning made of rocks, different than the gas giants like Jupiter. This planet is the largest of the four terrestrial planets, in the second sense, the mass and size. Of the four terrestrial planets, Earth also has the highest density, the largest surface gravity, magnetic field is strongest and most rapid rotation. Earth also represents the only terrestrial planets have active plate tectonics. Form Round the earth's rotation on the north-south axis that results in day and night
Shape of planet Earth is very similar to flattened spheres (oblate spheroid), a depressed flat spots on the orientation of the poles that cause buncitan at the equator. Buncitan this occurs because of rotation of the earth, causing the equatorial diameter greater than 43 km in diameter from pole to pole. The average diameter of the circle of the earth is 12 742 km, or roughly 40,000 km / π. Because the unit of meters in the first place 1/10.000.000 defined as the distance between the equator to the north pole through Paris, France.
Local topography varies slightly from the ideal form of a smooth sphere, although on a global scale, this variation is very small. Earth has a tolerance of about one in 584, or 0.17% compared to a perfect sphere (reference spheroid), which is smoother when compared with the tolerance of a billiard ball, 0.22%. Local largest deviation at the surface of the earth is Mount Everest (8848 m above sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10 911 m below sea level). Because buncitan equator, the earth located farthest from the midpoint of the Earth is actually Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador.
Endogenous natural processes / endogenous energy is energy that comes from the earth in the earth. Workers are building the endogenous nature of this earth's surface. Exogenous natural forces come from outside the earth and destructive. So that's what makes the second power range of reliefs on this earth as we know that the earth's surface which we live is made up of various formations such as mountains, valleys, hills, lakes, rivers, etc.. The existence of such formations, causing the earth's surface becomes uneven. Formations are known as the relief of the earth. Chemical composition
The mass of the earth is approximately 5.98 × 1024 kg. Its main content is composed of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%) , calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%) and 1.2%, the rest consisting of various rare elements. Because the process of mass segregation, the earth's core is believed to have the main content of iron (88.8%), and a little nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and the rest less than 1% of rare elements. [10]
Geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that approximately 47% of the earth's crust consists of oxygen. The most common rocks found in the earth's crust are nearly all oxides (oxides), chlorine, sulfur, and fluorine is an exception, and amounts in rocks are usually less than 1%. The main oxides are silica, alumina, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, cyanide and soda. The main function is as an acid silica, which form the silicate. This is the basic nature of the various igneous minerals are most common. Based on calculations from 1.672 analysis of various types of rock, Clarke concluded that 99.22% of rock composed of 11 oxides (see table right). Other constituents occur only in small amounts. [Note 3] Layers of the earth
According to the composition (type of material), the Earth can be divided into layers as follows:

    * Earth's Crust
    * Mantel Earth
    * Earth's Core
While according to the mechanical properties (properties of the material) it, the earth can be divided into layers as follows:

    * Litosfir
    * Astenosfir
    * Mesosfir
    * Earth's outer core
Earth's outer core is one part of the earth that coats the inside of the earth's core. Earth's outer core has a thickness of 2250 km and a depth of between 2900-4980 km. Earth's outer core consists of molten iron and nickel with a temperature of 3900 ° C

    * Earth's inner core
Earth's inner core is in parts of the earth or the earth can also be called the core. thickness of the earth's core has a diameter of 1200km and 2600km. earth's core consists of solid iron and nickel with the temperature can reach 4800 ° C